- Alluvial soil is the most widespread soil in India, covering about 40% of the land area; black (regur) soil of the Deccan is ideal for cotton.
- According to the India State of Forest Report 2023, forest and tree cover together make up 25.17% of India's geographical area.
- India has 58 tiger reserves (Madhav, March 2025, is the latest) and 18 biosphere reserves, of which 13 are in UNESCO's World Network.
Soils of India
| Soil | Where | Properties | Crops |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alluvial | Northern plains, river valleys, eastern deltas | Rich in potash; poor in nitrogen and phosphorus; khadar (new) and bhangar (old) | Rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses |
| Black (regur) | Deccan plateau — Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, parts of Telangana | From Deccan Trap basalt; holds moisture; cracks when dry ("self-ploughing"); rich in lime, iron, magnesia and potash; poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter | Cotton (hence "black cotton soil"), soybean, jowar |
| Red and yellow | Eastern and southern Deccan, Chotanagpur, Odisha | Red from iron diffused in crystalline rocks; yellow when hydrated | Millets, groundnut, pulses (with fertilisers) |
| Laterite | Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu hills, Odisha, Assam | Formed by intense leaching under high heat and rain; poor in nutrients; hardens into bricks | Tea, coffee, cashew (with manure) |
| Arid | Western Rajasthan | Sandy, saline; lower layers have kankar | Bajra, pulses with irrigation |
| Saline and alkaline | Dry parts of Punjab, Haryana, UP, Rajasthan; coastal areas | Also called usar, reh or kallar; treated with gypsum | Salt-tolerant crops such as barseem |
| Peaty and marshy | Kerala, Sundarbans, coastal Odisha | High organic matter; waterlogged | Rice |
| Forest and mountain | Himalayan and other hill slopes | Acidic and humus-poor at high altitudes | Tea, fruits, spices |
Forest + tree cover25.17%
Forest cover21.76%
Most forest (area)Madhya Pradesh
Tiger reserves58
Biosphere reserves18 (13 UNESCO)
Policy target33% (1988)
Natural Vegetation by Rainfall
| Forest type | Rainfall | Where | Trees |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tropical evergreen | Over 200 cm | Western Ghats, north-east, Andaman & Nicobar | Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber |
| Tropical moist deciduous | 100–200 cm | Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, Odisha, Jharkhand, Shiwalik foothills | Teak, sal, shisham, bamboo |
| Tropical dry deciduous | 70–100 cm | Rainier parts of the plateau and plains | Teak, peepal, neem |
| Thorn and scrub | Under 70 cm | Rajasthan, Gujarat, rain-shadow Deccan | Acacia, babool, khejri, cactus |
| Montane | Varies with altitude | Himalayas, Nilgiris | Oak, chestnut, deodar, pine, fir; alpine pastures higher up |
| Mangrove (tidal) | Coastal deltas | Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika, Godavari–Krishna deltas | Sundari (gives the Sundarbans its name), rhizophora |
Tropical deciduous ("monsoon") forests are the most widespread type in India.
ISFR 2023 at a Glance
- Released in December 2024 by the Forest Survey of India (Dehradun), which publishes the report every two years.
- Forest and tree cover: 8,27,357 sq km, or 25.17% of geographical area — forest cover 21.76% and tree cover 3.41%.
- Largest forest cover by area: Madhya Pradesh, then Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
- The National Forest Policy (1988) aims for 33% of the area under forest or tree cover.
Protected Areas
- The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 provides for national parks and wildlife sanctuaries; the 2002 amendment added conservation reserves and community reserves.
- Project Tiger began in 1973; there are 58 tiger reserves, the latest being Madhav (MP), notified in March 2025. The 2022 estimate counted at least 3,682 tigers.
- Biosphere reserves: India has 18. The Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve (Himachal Pradesh) became India's 13th site in UNESCO's World Network on September 27, 2025; Nilgiri (1986) was the first.
- Ramsar sites: India has more than 90 wetlands of international importance — the most in Asia.
- India's oldest national park is Jim Corbett (1936, as Hailey National Park).
- Soil ↔ property: "self-ploughing" (black), "leaching" (laterite), "usar/reh/kallar" (saline), "iron oxide" (red).
- Forest type ↔ rainfall band: expect 200 cm / 100 cm / 70 cm thresholds in the options.
- Latest counts: tiger reserves (58), UNESCO biosphere reserves (13), ISFR forest + tree cover (25.17%) — newer papers update these, so always check the year.
Q1. Which soil is known as "self-ploughing" because it develops deep cracks when dry?
✅ Answer: (a) Black soil
💡 Explanation: Black (regur) soil swells when wet and cracks when dry, aerating itself.
Q2. Laterite soil is formed mainly by:
✅ Answer: (c) Intense leaching under high temperature and rainfall
💡 Explanation: Heavy rain leaches away soluble nutrients, leaving iron and aluminium oxides.
Q3. According to ISFR 2023, forest and tree cover together make up what share of India's area?
✅ Answer: (d) 25.17%
💡 Explanation: Forest cover is 21.76% and tree cover 3.41%, totalling 25.17%.
Q4. Which became India's 13th biosphere reserve in UNESCO's World Network in 2025?
✅ Answer: (b) Cold Desert
💡 Explanation: The Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve in Himachal Pradesh was added on September 27, 2025.
Q5. Which is the most widespread forest type in India?
✅ Answer: (c) Tropical deciduous
💡 Explanation: Tropical deciduous (monsoon) forests cover the largest area.
🔁 Revise in 60 Seconds
- Alluvial most widespread (~40%); black soil → cotton; laterite → leaching, tea/coffee/cashew.
- Forests by rainfall: evergreen >200 cm, moist deciduous 100–200, dry deciduous 70–100, thorn <70.
- ISFR 2023: 25.17% forest + tree cover; MP largest by area.
- 58 tiger reserves (Madhav 2025); 18 biosphere reserves, 13 UNESCO (Cold Desert 2025).
📌 Prelims Traps to Avoid
- ✘ Black soil is poor in nitrogen and phosphorus but rich in lime, iron and potash.
- ✘ National Forest Policy target is 33%; the actual figure (2023) is about 25%.
- ✘ There are 18 biosphere reserves in India but only 13 in UNESCO's network.
Which soil is best for cotton cultivation in India?
Black (regur) soil of the Deccan plateau, which forms from basalt, retains moisture and is rich in lime and potash. It is also called black cotton soil.
What does ISFR 2023 say about India's forest cover?
Forest and tree cover together are 8,27,357 sq km, or 25.17% of India's geographical area: forest cover is 21.76% and tree cover 3.41%. Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover by area.